| Non-Rationalised History NCERT Notes, Solutions and Extra Q & A (Class 6th to 12th) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Class 12th History NCERT Notes, NCERT Question Solutions and Extra Q & A (Non-Rationalised)
1. Bricks, Beads And Bones - The Harappan Civilisation
This chapter explores the **Indus Valley Civilization** (c. 2600-1900 BCE), also known as the Harappan Civilization, through archaeological evidence like **bricks**, **beads**, and **bones**. It discusses key features of this early urban culture in the Indian subcontinent, focusing on town planning (grid layout, drainage systems), architecture (use of fired bricks), craftsmanship (bead making, pottery), and the evidence from burials and seals. By examining these material remains excavated from sites like **Harappa** and **Mohenjo-Daro**, historians reconstruct aspects of their social, economic, and religious life, highlighting the sophistication of one of the world's earliest civilisations that flourished along river valleys.
2. Kings, Farmers And Towns - Early States And Economies (c.600 BCE-600 CE)
This chapter examines the major political and economic developments in the Indian subcontinent from c. 600 BCE to 600 CE. It discusses the emergence of the **Mahajanapadas** and the rise of early empires, particularly the **Mauryan Empire** under rulers like **Ashoka**. The chapter explores changes in the rural landscape driven by increased agricultural productivity (use of iron plough, transplantation) which supported the growth of **towns** as centres of crafts and trade. Different sources like inscriptions (e.g., Ashoka's edicts) and coinage are used to reconstruct the political systems, agrarian relations, and urban life of this period, showcasing significant state formation and economic expansion.
3. Kinship, Caste And Class - Early Societies (c. 600 BCE-600 CE)
This chapter explores the social structures and relationships in early Indian societies from c. 600 BCE to 600 CE, drawing insights from texts like the **Mahabharata**. It discusses the concepts of **kinship** (family ties), rules of **marriage** (endogamy, exogamy), and the formation of **lineages**. The chapter delves into the development and operation of the **caste system** (Varna and Jati), the division of society into hierarchical groups, and debates around social status and occupation. It also examines rules regarding property ownership and gender roles, highlighting how historians use various sources to understand the complex social hierarchies and norms of ancient Indian society.
4. Thinkers, Beliefs And Buildings - Cultural Developments (c. 600 BCE-600 CE)
This chapter examines the significant cultural and religious developments in the Indian subcontinent from c. 600 BCE to 600 CE. It discusses the emergence of new philosophical ideas and religious traditions, particularly **Buddhism** (teachings of **Gautama Buddha**) and **Jainism** (teachings of **Mahavira**), which offered alternatives to existing belief systems. The chapter explores the development of religious art and architecture, such as the construction of **stupas** (e.g., Sanchi), monasteries, and early forms of temples, which served as centres of worship and reflection and reflect the prevailing **beliefs** and practices of the time, showcasing a period of rich intellectual and artistic activity.
5. Through The Eyes Of Travellers: - Perceptions Of Society (c. Tenth To Seventeenth Centuries)
This chapter explores the perspectives of foreign **travellers** who visited the Indian subcontinent between the 10th and 17th centuries and recorded their observations. It discusses the accounts of prominent travellers like **Al-Biruni**, **Ibn Battuta**, and **François Bernier**, highlighting what they wrote about Indian society, culture, economic conditions, and political systems. By examining their unique viewpoints and biases, historians gain valuable insights into different aspects of life in medieval and early modern India, complementing indigenous sources and offering alternative interpretations of social practices, urban life, and the state of the economy.
6. Bhakti –Sufi Traditions: - Changes In Religious Beliefs And Devotional Texts (c. Eighth To Eighteenth Centuries)
This chapter examines the development and spread of the **Bhakti** and **Sufi traditions** in the Indian subcontinent from the 8th to the 18th centuries. These devotional movements emphasized a personal relationship with God and often challenged orthodox religious practices, rituals, and social distinctions like caste. It discusses the contributions of prominent Bhakti saints (e.g., Alvars, Nayanars, Kabir, Nanak, Mirabai) and Sufi saints (e.g., Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, Nizamuddin Auliya). The chapter highlights the rich body of devotional poetry and music and how these traditions fostered religious tolerance, social reform, and cultural synthesis, significantly influencing Indian society.
7. An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara - (c. Fourteenth To Sixteenth Centuries)
This chapter focuses on the **Vijayanagara Empire** (c. 14th-16th centuries), a powerful state in South India, and its magnificent capital city, **Vijayanagara** (modern Hampi). It explores the political structure, military organization, economic prosperity (agriculture, extensive trade networks), and vibrant cultural life of the empire. Insights from archaeological remains (temples, palaces, fortifications, water systems) and accounts of foreign visitors (like Domingo Paes, Fernao Nuniz) are used to reconstruct the grandeur of the city and the life of its inhabitants. The chapter highlights Vijayanagara as a significant example of state formation, urban development, and cultural flourishing in medieval South India.
8. Peasants, Zamindars And The State: - Agrarian Society And The Mughal Empire (c. Sixteenth-Seventeenth Centuries)
This chapter examines the structure of **agrarian society** and the relationship between different social groups under the **Mughal Empire** (c. 16th-17th centuries). It focuses on the lives and livelihoods of **peasants** (cultivators), the role of **zamindars** (landholders/intermediaries in revenue collection), and their interaction with the **state** (Mughal administration). It discusses the land revenue systems (e.g., **Ain-i Akbari**), agricultural production, technology, and the diverse social hierarchy in the rural areas. The chapter highlights how the Mughal state attempted to regulate these relationships and extract revenue, illustrating the complexities of rural life in the empire.
9. Kings And Chronicles: - The Mughal Courts (c. Sixteenth-Seventeenth Centuries)
This chapter explores the workings of the **Mughal courts** and the imperial administration during the 16th and 17th centuries, primarily through the lens of **Mughal chronicles** (like Akbarnama, Badshahnama). It discusses the role of chroniclers, the rituals and ceremonies of the court, and the daily life of the emperors and the elite. The chapter examines the structure of the Mughal administration, the composition of the ruling elite (Mansabdari system), and the ideals of kingship promoted by the Mughals. It highlights how these chronicles serve as important sources for understanding the political culture, power dynamics, and social hierarchy within the Mughal Empire.
10. Colonialism And The Countryside: - Exploring Official Archives
This chapter explores the impact of **British Colonialism** on the **countryside** in India by utilizing **official archives** and records. It examines how colonial rule transformed the agrarian landscape through land revenue policies (e.g., Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari), forest laws, and the commercialization of agriculture. The chapter discusses the effects of these policies on the lives of peasants, zamindars, and tribal communities, often leading to impoverishment and displacement. By analyzing official correspondence, reports, and surveys, historians gain insights into the colonial state's perspective, objectives, and the significant changes it imposed on rural India, often leading to unrest and revolts.
11. Rebels And The Raj: - 1857 Revolt And Its Representations
This chapter focuses on the **Revolt of 1857**, a major uprising against British rule, examining it from multiple perspectives. It explores the various causes (political, economic, social, religious) and the widespread nature of the rebellion across different regions of India. The chapter discusses the key centres of the revolt and the role of prominent **rebels** and leaders (e.g., Rani Lakshmibai, Nana Saheb, Begum Hazrat Mahal). It also analyzes the different **representations** of the revolt in British (e.g., emphasizing 'mutiny', chaos) and Indian accounts (e.g., emphasizing 'first war of independence'), highlighting the contested narratives surrounding this pivotal event and its impact on the British **Raj**.
12. Colonial Cities: - Urbanisation, Planning And Architecture
This chapter examines the transformation of Indian cities under **British colonial rule**. It discusses the process of **urbanisation** shaped by colonial interests, leading to the decline of some pre-colonial urban centers and the rise of new **colonial cities** (e.g., Calcutta, Bombay, Madras). The chapter explores the distinct **planning** and **architecture** of these cities, including segregated areas like 'White Town' and 'Black Town', 'Civil Lines', and 'Cantonments', and the construction of impressive colonial buildings blending European styles (Neo-Gothic, Neo-Classical) with some Indian elements. It highlights how colonial power restructured urban spaces and influenced the lives and social interactions within these cities, reflecting colonial priorities and hierarchies.
13. Mahatma Gandhi And The - Nationalist Movement: - Civil Disobedience And Beyond
This pivotal chapter focuses on the leadership of **Mahatma Gandhi** in the **Indian Nationalist Movement** from 1915 to 1947. It discusses his philosophy of **Satyagraha** (truth force) and non-violent resistance, explaining how he mobilized masses across India. The chapter covers major movements led by Gandhi, including the Non-Cooperation Movement, the **Civil Disobedience Movement** (e.g., Dandi March against the salt tax), and the Quit India Movement. It highlights Gandhi's ability to connect with ordinary people, his challenges in uniting diverse groups, and his crucial role in guiding India towards independence, showcasing his unique approach to political struggle.
14. Understanding Partition: - Politics, Memories, Experiences
This chapter examines the complex event of the **Partition of India** in 1947 from multiple perspectives. It discusses the political developments and decisions that led to the division of British India into India and Pakistan. The chapter explores the human dimension of Partition, focusing on the personal **memories** and devastating **experiences** of ordinary people who lived through the mass migration, communal violence, and displacement. By incorporating diverse sources like oral testimonies, diaries, and literary works, the chapter highlights the trauma and human cost of Partition, offering a more nuanced understanding of this significant and painful event in Indian history.
15. Framing The Constitution: - The Beginning Of A New Era
This chapter discusses the process of drafting and adopting the **Constitution of India**, which marked the dawn of a new era for independent India. It introduces the **Constituent Assembly**, its composition representing different sections and viewpoints, and the intensive debates and deliberations that took place over nearly three years. The chapter highlights the key figures involved (e.g., **Dr. B.R. Ambedkar** as the Chairman of the Drafting Committee) and the core principles and values (sovereignty, socialism, secularism, democracy, justice, liberty, equality, fraternity) enshrined in the Constitution. It explains how the Constitution laid the foundation for India as a democratic republic, outlining the structure of the government and fundamental rights and duties of its citizens.